PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES NATURE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CAUSE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

 

 

PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

 

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

We notice that there are individual differences in structure, mental abilities, the colour of skin etc. in the students when we look at their faces each individual is unique.  If we carefully observe we can notice some are healthy and jolly and others are weak and irritable.  Some forget quickly and some remember well and some respond quickly and others slowly.  In this way, there are differences in individuals.  Every one of us is a typical human being in himself.  These differences in one form or other found in individual is named as “Individual Differences”  in psychological terminology.

The answers to these differences are found in two major forces i.e. heredity and environment.  Nature and nurture (Education) are two great influences which make the individuals today what they are.

NATURE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Followings are the varieties of individual differences found in human beings:

1)   Physical Differences :  Height, weight, colour of skin and eyes structure  

etc. are the main physical difference.

2) Mental Differences :   People differ in intellectual abilities and capacities like problem solving and thinking  power, power of imagination, concentration etc. In the field of general intelligence also, we find lot of difference.

3) Difference in Motor Abilities : Very wide difference in motor abilities such as reaction time, speed of action, steadiness, rate of muscular movement, manual dexterity and resistance of fatigue etc.

 4)Emotional Difference :  In some individuals positive emotions like love, affection and amusement etc. are more prevalent whereas in other negative emotions are powerful.  Some are emotionally stable and others are emotionally unstable and immature.

5) Difference in respect of Interest and Aptitude :  Specific tastes and interests vary widely from person to person.  Some feel happy in solitude and some others feel happy in meeting persons and social work etc.  Some have  mechanical aptitude and other have artistic and musical aptitude.

6) Learning Difference : In the field of learning very vast individual differences are notice since the inception of teaching.  Some learn more easily and able to make their learning more comfortable than others. 

A particular type of method may be suitable for one group of learners but other group of learners cannot able to adjust in this method and they may more comfortable in other method.  In the same way the suitability of learning situation also depends upon the individual nature of the learner.

7) Difference in Social and Moral Development:  There may be lot of differences in respect of moral and social developments.  Some are found to be adjusted properly in the social situation and lead happy social life while others are socially handicapped – unsocial or antisocial, similarly people are found to differ in ethical or moral sense.

8) Economic Condition :

9) Relation with Parents :

CAUSE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES :

Whatever may the differences in the individuals seems to exist can be clearly say to the variations in hereditary or environmental situation or both.

The numerous special factors that cause people to differ can be traced back to heredity and environment.  Individuals different in many cases because one has had better opportunities than another an environment factor – but even when given the same opportunities one person make better use of them than the another because he is better equipped by HEREDITY to take advantage of what the ENVIRONMENT has to offer.

i) HEREDITY :  “Heredity means the biological potentialities passed on through the GENES from the parents to the children.  Heredity consists of tendencies to develop in certain ways, these tendencies are not left behind in infancy but are carried along through life.”

ii) ENVIRONMENT : “Environment means all of the extrinsic forces, influence and conditions, which effect the life, nature, behaviours, growth, development and maturation of live organism.”

Heredity covers all the factors that were present in individuals when he began life, while environment covers all the outside factors that have acted on him since that time.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ON EDUCATION :  The common belief is  that individuals differs in various abilities, capacities and personal characteristic is in fact responsible for bringing individual tendencies in education.  It has helped to teachers to realize the following facts.

a) In any group there may be persons deviate from the norms of the group.

b) Along with the average is the presence of very superior and extremely dull is equally possible in the class.

c)Every teacher should try to have the desired knowledge of the abilities, capacities, attitudes, aptitudes, interest and other personality traits of his students and in the light of his knowledge, he should give individual guidance to the learners for maximum use of their abilities.

d) From a group of students in particular field a teacher cannot expect uniformity in going proficiency or success.  Due to their subs-normal intelligence, previous background, lack of proper interest aptitude and attitude etc., some students have to lag behind in some other area of achievement.

e) It is important to know all students cannot be benefited by a particular method of instruction, a uniform and rigid curriculum.

SUGGESTION HOW TO DEAL WITH INDIVIDUAL DIFFERECE

When we realize the above facts, we think that some provisions we must have for the wide individual schooling and learning to individual.  However, the following suggestion may prove helpful for the teacher in this direction.

a) PROPER KNOWLEDGE OF THE INDIVIDUAL :  First step in making provision for individual differences is to know about abilities, capacities, interests, attitudes and other personality traits of the individual learners.  To find out, intelligence test, aptitude test and assessing personality traits should be taken.

b) HOMOGENEOUS GROUPING : a homogeneous group will definitely reduce the wide range of individual differences.  This is actually ability grouping.  I.Q. Performance test may be used for this grouping.

INTELLIGENCE : “Intelligence is a general capacity of an individual consciously to adjust his thinking to know requirement, it is general mental adaptability to our problems and conditions of life.”   -  “Slern”

“Intelligence is contained in comprehension, invention, direction and criticism.”   “Benet”

Intelligence test invented by French Scientist “Benet” & “Simon” in 1904.  I.Q.

(Intelligence Quotient) – Intelligence always refers to aptitude rather than achievement.  A student can be very intelligent yet accomplish very little in his studies.  The term I.Q.  is simply a moan of relating general aptitude to age.  It is determined by standard intelligence tests given under controlled conditions.

Psychologist applied the following formula for calculating I.Q.

I.Q.  =  MA/CA  X  100, where, MA  =  Mental Age           CA   =  Chronological Age

The intelligence quotient indicates the rate of mental growth of a child.

CLASSIFICATION  :

For purposed as comparison.  I.Q. are generally classified as per following table:

Sl. No.	Classification	I.Q.	% of normal population
01	Genius	140 &above	0.25%
02	Very superior	130-139	0.75%
03	Superior	120-129	5%
04	Above Average	110-119	13%
05	Average	90-109	60%
06	Below Average	80-89	13%
07	Dull or Border Lim	70-79	6%
08	Feeble minded	50-69	0.75%
09	Mentally Retarded (Moron)	49 & below	0.25%

(Classifications are required at the time of grouping the students for instruction.)

c) INDIVIDUALISING INSTRUCTION  : This enables the learner to learn at their own individual rate.  He may be asked to spend more time to study work or subjects and loss on stronger ones.

d) ADJUSTING THE METHOD OF TEACHING  : Every teacher does this to some extent.  Things are explained in different ways and the importance ones are repeated.  Appeal is made to different senses.  Formal instructions are supplemented by individual and group activity.

e) SPECIAL COACHING FOR DULL AND VERY BRIGHT LEARNERS  : Special coaching will be desirable to help the dull learner to overcome specific difficulties and frustration due to the poor relative achievement and to prevent the bright learner becoming board, disinterested and retarded.  Special arrangement also be made for those who are disable in sensory or physically.

f) ACCELERATION TO ABLER GOUP  : Extra promotion or giving special grades in a period may be satisfying and encouraging the learners.

REFERENCE TO READING :

1) The Instructor and His Job    by   H.C. Rose.

2) Educational Psychology        by    B.C. Rai.

ASSIGNMENTS

1) Name the varieties of individual differences.  Why is it necessary to take care of these differences sins the process of education?

2) Name the causes of individual differences and explain briefly.

3) What are the provisions for adjusting individual differences?

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PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

 

MOTIVATION -  II

                              “Motivation is an incentive, an incitement of the will, a force that influences the behavior of a  person to do a thing.”

                        “Motivation is a moving force or stimulus or motive which precedes a behavior or an act.”                          - SULLY

 MOTIVATION:

Motivation is concerned with how behavior gets started, is energized, is sustained, is directed, is stopped, and what kind of  subjective reaction is present in the organism, while all this is going on.

A need to be fulfilled is motive and motivation means using the

motives in the individual to cause a definite action which will contribute to personal as well as organizational improvement.

To motivate means to incite a person to do or to act in the manner in which one wants him to do or act.

THE MOTIVATIONAL ASPECTS :

Why do people work?

If a group of persons are asked: “Why do you work?” The answers may be usually somewhat on the following lines :

                              i.        We work to get our food.

                            ii.        How to sustain the household needs?

                           iii.        I work because others do!

                           iv.        Duty towards family and society.

                            v.        I like working.

                           vi.        Why sit idle?

                          vii.        Challenge to do something.

                        viii.        The joy of completing a work.

                           ix.        Attraction towards co-workers.

                            x.        Environment in the organization.

                           xi.        Service to the country.

                          xii.        Karma Yoga / to please God.

                        xiii.        Social obligations.

                        xiv.        To enjoy the world.

                          xv.        One cannot leave the work unfinished.

                        xvi.        Working gives me the respect.

                       xvii.        So that others likes us.

                      xviii.        I like the particular job.

                        xix.        You get good offers of marriage.

                          xx.        For the future of my children and family.

                        xxi.        Creative urge.

                       xxii.        Excel in performance.

                      xxiii.        Lot of problems if you do not work.

                      xxiv.        Desire for power and authority.

                       xxv.        To gain a place in society.

      ……. And so on.

If these answers are analyzed, it will be found that people work to meet and fulfill their needs. These needs vary from one’s own physical needs to needs in social interactions and joy in work or excellence.

Each person is driven by a force impelled through his needs. Sometimes, the force is purely instinctive. On other occasions, it may arise from a rational decision. It could also be a mixture of both the processes.

However, whatever be the source of the force, harnessing participant’s motivation is such an obvious aspect of the leadership role, it is surprising that due attention has not been given to this aspect. Not much study has also been made in this area.

The goal of motivation is to cause people  to put forth their best efforts with enthusiasm and effectiveness in order to achieve and hopefully surpass organizational objectives. To motivate is to incite a person to do something in the manner in which you want it to be done.

“It is probably a mistake to think of motivation as a pre-requisite for learning. A more useful way of thinking about this force is to regard motivation as a general willingness to enter into a learning situation. However, it is un-necessary to postpone learning until appropriate classes of motivation are available. Frequently the best strategy is to ignore any initial motivational states and to concentrate on presenting the subject material in such a way that student motivation is developed and harnessed during the learning process.”                 - I.K.DAVIES

The above quote sums up the importance of motivation in learning situation.

There is no simple problem but a variety of complex problems in the motivation for learning. Motivation is an important issue of having a wide understanding of learning and development, of temperament, intelligence and socialization. It is the importance of selecting appropriate objectives for any group of learners in particular circumstances followed by designing the detailed Programme in suitable steps and stages for achieving the objective. Many failures are due to failures in the choice of aim or in programming the necessary learning.

The choice of the objectives and Programme are usually influenced by things like age, sex, general ability, temperament, social background, environment of training, institution, local and national cultural norms and the nature of the specific learning task. It is, therefore, important to understand that successful motivation will mean successful assessment of these factors and appropriate deployment of the training resources.               

There is no simple formula through which one could make a successful assessment of the various factors and decide upon appropriate deployment of training resources. One could only think of some approaches which could be helpful in practice and these could be developed based on a practical study of the psychology of learning. One common approach to motivation is through the concept of psychological needs.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs :

The diagram of the next page, explains Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow, as the lower needs are satisfied, higher level motives are released. However, a need does not have to be completely satisfied before the next need emerges. Even the most untalented person will seek to fulfill himself once the other needs have been more or less satisfied.

This concept is of interest of the teacher/trainer. But it does not indicate the strategies that could be used. The following two strategies can however be considered.

 

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation :

Intrinsic motivation refers to the content factors which are inherent in either the task of learning itself or the trainee himself. This is the basis of most modern educational theories concerning activity and discovery because exploration and curiosity are intrinsic to most people. Extrinsic motivation refers to context factors which are imposed on the learning task or trainee by the trainer or other external agent.

Maslow’s lower order needs refers to extrinsic factors whereas the two higher order needs refers to the intrinsic factors. One should be careful in selecting context factors. One could use the two factors with imagination.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Motivation – hygiene theory:

Frederick Herzberg found that good feelings people had were associated with the events which indicated that they were doing their work well whereas bad feelings were associated with background events about how they were being treated. The chart on the next page indicates factors providing satisfactions and those providing dis-satisfactions.

It would be seen from an interpretation in the percentage of this theory that a person’s extreme satisfaction factors generally are:

                            Achievement

                            Recognition

                            Work

                            Responsibility

Achievement can be co-related to relations with superiors, recognition to relations with peers, work and work conditions to salary and wages and responsibility to status.

By proper communication, it can be indicated that the ‘satisfying’ factors can be further increased and  ‘dissatisfying’ factors reduced considerably by training, the trainees will get motivated may be receptive to training.

This theory also helps to systematize a trainer’s role in providing compensatory conditions for poorly motivated trainees and helps him to assess the relevance and importance of the actions taken by him.

  

Motivation- Hygiene Theory             

 

Motivation – theory X and Y :

Douglas Mc Gregor has identified, at the extremes, two styles of managing: Theory X, or autocratic, and theory Y, or participative. Each style involves certain assumptions concerning human nature.

A theory of X person assumes that –

·         The average human being has an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it if he can.

·         Because of this human characteristic of dislike for work, most people must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort towards the achievement of organizational objectives.

·         The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security above all.

    A theory Y person holds directly opposite views concerning people   

    and their  attitudes  towards work. Assumptions made in theory Y are –

·         Work is a source of satisfaction and is as normal as play or rest.

·         Threat of punishment is only one way to induce people to work, and it is not usually the best way. People who are committed to achieving the organization’s objectives will display self-motivation and self-direction.

·         A person’s commitment to objectives depends on the rewards he expects to receive when goals are achieved.

·         Under the right conditions, the average person will both accept and seek responsibility.

·         The abilities to think creatively, to be innovative, and the capacity of problem-solving is widely, not narrowly, distributed among people.

·         The intellectual abilities of most people are underutilized.

This theory helps in improving learning process and learning situations.        

 

Exercise on Theory “X” &  Theory “Y”:

The X/Y Scale (Exercise)

Read each item carefully and then put a tick in one of the columns to indicate what you would do in your own real work situation –

Sl. No.	As a Supervisor I would :	A	B	C	D
		Make a great effort to do this	Tend to do this	Tend to avoid doing this	Really try to avoid this
1.	Closely supervise my Subordinates in order to get better work from them.
2.	Check with my subordinates daily to see if they need any help.
3.	Set the goals and objectives for my subordinates and sell them on the merits of my plan.
4.	Encourage my subordinates to set their own goals and objectives.
5.	Make sure that my subordinates' work is planned out for them.
6.	Outline and discuss the section’s objectives and encourage my staff to plan how to meet them.
7.	Push my people to meet schedules.
8.	Set up controls to ensure that my subordinates are getting the job done. Step in as soon as reports indicate that the job is slipping

                           

(Do not go ahead until you have put in your ticks)

Discussion on Exercise on Theory “X” & Theory “Y”:

Even-numbered items

If you gave yourself ticks under A or B for the Even-numbered items, you tend to use Theory Y. The more ticks under A, the more you favor for theory Y                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Odd numbered items

f you gave yourself ticks under A or B for the Odd numbered items, you tend to use Theory X supervision. The more ticks under A, the more you favour for theory X.

 

 

Where do human drives come from? How does a motive come into existence?

The answers are important for a teacher. They show us how internal drives and motives come into existence.

Whenever a human being needs something out of his environment or has an internal surplus of something, then his inner balance is disturbed. There exists a difference between the actual value and a desired value.

Let us look a simple model. If a man works hard, he sweats. An output of water will make the ball sink under the desired value. The right switch will be closed. A warming lamp is lighted: Too little. This signal is reported to the brain as a need. The human being recognizes: I am thirsty. (Needs are unpleasant)

Parallel to the need some internal energy is set free. It results in a drive. A drive is an internal pressure, which presses the man to do something against the unpleasant feeling of thirst. He knows: I need water. Suddenly he sees a bottle of water. He now has a goal. The drives aim for the goal and urge the man towards the goal. The man now has a motive.

A motive is a drive which aims for a goal, we can say:- DRIVE + GOAL = MOTIVE

  When the man drinks water, this is an input. If he drinks too much water, the ball will rise above the desired level. The warming lamp too much is lighted. The man will feel a need to stop drinking. A drive makes him to do it.

 

Summery: A human being has as many internal balances as needs. If an inner balance is disturbed, the human being will feel a need (unpleasant feeling) and a drive (internal pressure). The drives aim at goals which can satisfy this need. It urges the human being towards these goals. If a drive aims at a goal, a motive come into existence. A human being usually has several motives.  

 

“If the ruler follows the dictates of his duty (dharma), the ruled also do the same. If the ruler be impious, the ruled also are impious. The ruled are simple if the ruler be simple. The ruled follow the ruler. As the ruler, so will the ruled be”.                                                                         --  Chanakya neeti

 

                  The above quote sums up the teacher taught position in motivation.

 

 

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